CCL2 and cancer: CCL2-expressing macrophages have been implicated in facilitating tumor cell invasion and metastasis, supported by the critical role of the CCL2/CCR2 signaling axis in tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) development, which directly influences tumor cell survival, growth, and invasive capabilities and further high levels of CCL2 expression have been correlated with poor prognostic outcomes in cancer patients21,64–66.