Immunostaining analysis revealed notably increased expression levels of liver cancer marker (AFP), proliferation marker (Ki67), and EMT activation marker (α-SMA) in both PDOX models generated with Matrigel and Liver ECM (Fig. 6F), confirming the successful establishment of PDOX models of liver cancer organoids using Liver ECM to the levels comparable to Matrigel. This evidence concerns the gene ACTA1 and liver cancer.