However, gut microbiota dysbiosis can disrupt the intestinal barrier, causing “leaky gut” (Dmytriv et al., 2024), which allows pro-inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) to enter systemic circulation, triggering a systemic inflammatory response that contributes to insomnia (Li et al., 2023). Here, TNF is linked to insomnia.