TLR4 and cancer: While Ec also induces the expression of cytokines such as CXCL1, IL-6, and IL-8 in exposed CAFs, potentially through LPS-induced TLR4 signaling, in agreement with prior findings (Wang et al, 2025), it fails to promote invasion in vitro—whether in Transwell assays or complex 3D models—, or in vivo, and does not enhance direct cancer cell invasiveness, as previously shown by us (Ternes et al, 2022).