HBB and Alzheimer disease: Similar to findings in AD and PD patients, we observed a significant reduction in astrocytic Hbβ in 30-month-old mice (Fig. 7k, l), which is consistent with previous findings of decreased Hbβ mRNA levels in aging brains.45 Notably, KDS12025 restored astrocytic Hbβ expression to levels exceeding those in 18-month-old mice (Fig. 7k, l), indicating the potent ability of KDS12025 to increase astrocytic Hbβ even in aging conditions.