EPCAM and neoplasm: Furthermore, peptide display (e.g., the tumor-penetrating peptide iRGD), antibody conjugation (targeting ubiquitous EV membrane proteins like CD63/CD9 or disease-specific antigens), and aptamer modification (e.g., EpCAM aptamer) have also been effectively employed to reprogram the tropism of MEVs towards specific pathological sites (Zhong et al., 2021).