TNF and rheumatoid arthritis: In a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model and RA patients, SIN significantly modulated monocyte/macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses by inhibiting the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors (e.g., interleukin-6 (IL-6), TNF-α, and interleukin-1β (IL-1β)) and upregulating the expression of anti-inflammatory factors (e.g., interleukin-10 (IL-10)), thereby delaying the progression of RA (Zeng and Tong, 2020; Li R. Z. et al., 2023; Li J. M. et al., 2023).