In lung cancer, evaluating factors such as smoking history, TMB, MSI, high expression of CTLA4, low expression of CX3CL1, and CD8 + T cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment (TME) may provide more robust predictive capabilities for responses to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapies compared to histopathological PD-L1 quantification [19–21]. Here, CD274 is linked to neoplasm.