As a common cytokine, GM-CSF enhances antigen presentation during virotherapy by recruiting, activating, and maturing monocytes and DCs.158, 159, 160GM-CSF has been armed to different viruses, including HSV, VV, and AdV, and has been studied in preclinical and clinical trials for various types of tumors.161, 162, 163 For example, ONCOS-102, an OV encoding GM-CSF, enhanced T-cell infiltration and augmented the anti-tumor efficacy in multiple tumors.164. Here, CSF2 is linked to neoplasm.