TNF and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: HFD consumption leads to liver lipid dysregulation through three primary mechanisms: (1) imbalanced TG and cholesteryl ester (CE) metabolism, resulting in steatosis [15]; (2) lipotoxicity-induced hepatocyte damage, which stimulates the body to release cytokines with pro-inflammatory effects (such as TNF-α and IL-6) and activates Kupffer cells, thus exacerbating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) [16]; and (3) ceramide-mediated impairment of insulin signaling (via the PI3K/Akt pathway), which increases glucose dysregulation [17].