HMGB1 and diabetes mellitus: Notably, in type 2 diabetes mellitus models, palmatine shows better restorative effects on insulin signaling pathways compared to metformin and glimepiride, and reduces serum high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) levels to promote healing of diabetic corneal ulcers (Li et al., 2022; Nwabueze et al., 2022).