TNF and infection: The BMVs’ natural immunogenicity makes them ideal self-adjuvant nanovaccines, and their structure allows targeted delivery of therapeutic molecules to improve disease outcomes in infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.29,30 MVs derived from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus reuteri can downregulate proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, which are the key markers in inflammatory responses.31,32 By reducing these cytokines, Lactobacillus MVs help mitigate inflammatory conditions such as colitis and lipopolysaccharide induced intestinal inflammation.