AVP and chronic kidney disease: For example, in longitudinal studies ranging in length of 6.5–19.6 years, diabetes mellitus, CKD, and cardiovascular issues trend linearly with baseline copeptin levels whereas elevated baseline serum sodium (>142 or >144 mmol/L) is associated with CKD and other chronic diseases, heart failure, and all-cause mortality ~4–25 years post baseline [19].