REN and atherosclerosis: Impaired cardiac output, high venous pressures, and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the sympathetic nervous system exacerbate the risk of CKD [48, 49]。Hypertension is not only a key risk factor for CKD, but also disrupts the renal vascular system through atherosclerosis, potentially leading to persistent hypertension and renal failure [50, 51].