INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Diabetic animals exhibited characteristic T2DM features including moderate hyperglycemia (245.8 ± 28.6 vs. 98.6 ± 8.3 mg/dL in controls), elevated HOMA-IR values (3.8 ± 0.7), and preserved but elevated insulin levels, confirming insulin resistance rather than absolute insulin deficiency (Table 2).