TNF and diabetic encephalopathy: Diabetic encephalopathy was characterized by robust neuroinflammatory activation, with pro-inflammatory cytokines significantly elevated: TNF-α (4.7-fold), IL-6 (3.8-fold), IL-1β (3.2-fold), and IFN-γ (2.9-fold) compared to controls (Figure 5A–D; Table 7).