IRS1 and cancer: The mechanisms by which GR upregulation was found to increase cancer aggressiveness include promotion of epithelial–mesenchymal transformation by transcriptional repression of insulin receptor substrate 1 in breast cancer cells [68], escape from apoptosis by repression of p38 MAP kinase in cervical cancer cells [69], bypass of androgen receptor blockade in prostate cancer cells [70], and increased glycolytic energy production through the suppression of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase in liver cancer cells [71].