VCAM1 and central nervous system cancer: Additionally, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is expressed at higher levels in glioma patients compared to healthy individuals, and UA, as a pharmacological antagonist of AhR, mitigated TNF-α-induced expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) in GBM cells, reversing the immune suppression [147].