Unlike traditional tools like the GPA or Recursive Partitioning Analysis (RPA), AI models incorporate imaging features (e.g., tumor volume, edema) [101], clinical variables (e.g., Karnofsky Performance Status, systemic disease burden), and biomarkers (e.g., EGFR mutation status, PD-L1 expression, and TMB) [115,134]. Here, CD274 is linked to neoplasm.