TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Constitutive NF-κB activation in IBD tissues drives the overexpression of key pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) and mediators (e.g., COX-2, iNOS), perpetuating tissue damage and inflammation (Biasi et al., 2013; Mussbacher et al., 2023; Mukherjee et al., 2024).