Pimecrolimus further significantly decreased the ConA‐induced release of GM‐CSF (non‐IBD: 12‐fold; IBD: 9‐fold), TNF‐α (non‐IBD: 12‐fold; IBD: 10‐fold), IFN‐γ (non IBD: 21‐fold; IBD: 7‐fold), IL‐17A (non‐IBD: 24‐fold; IBD: 25‐fold), IL‐17F (not quantifiable in both tissues after treatment), IL‐21 (non‐IBD: 1.5‐fold; IBD: 8‐fold), and IL‐22 (non‐IBD: 13‐fold; IBD: 3‐fold), indicating inhibition of Th1‐ and Th17‐cell associated responses ex vivo (Figure 3E–K). Here, CSF2 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.