Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-17 (IL-17), are elevated in OA joints, promoting cartilage degradation and chronic joint inflammation (Wojdasiewicz et al., 2014; De Roover et al., 2023; Gaddala et al., 2024). Here, TNF is linked to inflammatory response.