AKT1 and diabetic retinopathy: For example, in cardiomyocytes, SA activates the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β signaling pathway to exert anti-apoptotic activities (Liu G. et al., 2020), while in RGC-5 cells, it protects against H2O2-induced apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, suggesting its therapeutic role in diabetic retinopathy (Song et al., 2016).