TNF and rheumatoid arthritis: PAD enzymes catalyze the citrullination of self-proteins, generating neoepitopes that trigger anti-citrullinated protein antibody production, while TNF-α enhances Th17 cell differentiation through nuclear factor kappa-B signaling and impairs regulatory T cell function, collectively driving rheumatoid arthritis-associated autoimmunity and joint destruction (Jie et al., 2023).