GREM1 and hepatocellular carcinoma: Compared to NTA-MSCs, TA-MSCs from gastric cancer [42], lung cancer [45, 47, 50], pancreatic cancer [26] and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) [66] exhibit a notable elevation in cytokines like IL-6, IL-8 and TGF-β, along with genes including MMP1, S100A4, GREM1, and LOXL2, all of which are associated with tumorigenesis.