TNF and delirium: For example, a systematic evaluation of animal experiments has shown that microglia activation is associated with elevated levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and Toll-like receptors (activated microglia release cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), and may lead to delirium (Hoogland et al., 2015; Author Anonymous, 2024).