CASP2 and neoplasm: Concurrently, the expression of key apoptotic genes, including CASP1, CASP2, and CASP8 (Figure 6E), was significantly upregulated after 3-MA and PTX combination treatment, further confirming that autophagy inhibition disrupts the protective mechanism of tumor cells, promotes apoptotic signal activation, and enhances paclitaxel-induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells.