INS and diabetes mellitus: The most frequently prescribed medications for T2DM, accounting for over 90% of all diabetes cases, are oral antidiabetic agents, encompassing insulin secretagogues (such as sulfonylureas), insulin sensitizers (like metformin), PPARγ agonists (thiazolidinediones), DPP-4 inhibitors (e.g., sitagliptin) and GLP-1 mimetics (e.g., exenatide) [3,4], sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors [5,6], and α-glucosidase inhibitors (e.g., acarbose) [7,8].