For example, proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β have been shown to impair neurotransmitter homeostasis (e.g., decreased serotonin levels and enhanced glutamatergic excitotoxicity), induce oxidative stress (OS) and neuronal pyroptosis, and lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and synaptic protein loss—ultimately fostering a bidirectional relationship between epilepsy and depression (Zhu et al., 2006; Tong et al., 2024). Here, IL1B is linked to major depressive disorder.