TGFB1 and neoplasm: For example, IL-6 stimulates proliferation, survival, invasion, and metastasis,551 while TNF can either trigger apoptosis and necroptosis in tumor cells or, conversely, extend their survival.552 The production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and TGF-β, further modulates the functional consequences of these cytokine activities, contributing to an immunosuppressive TME553,554 (Fig. 13).