MTOR and neoplasm: Abnormalities in pathways such as NF-κB, Hippo/Yes‐associated protein (YAP), MAPK/MEK/ERK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Rho/ROCK, Wnt/β‐catenin, and TGF-β pathways may result in ESCs presenting with the tumor-like characteristics of proliferation, autophagy, apoptosis, fibrosis, angiogenesis, ROS production, immune system activation, and inflammatory responses (69).