BDNF and epilepsy: Taking into account the existing research on the mechanism of action of VD in epilepsy, we present a concise overview of the following antiepileptic mechanisms associated with VD: down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines expression, inhibition of the neuroinflammatory, regulation of calcium channels and calcium-binding proteins (CBP), up-regulation of neurotrophins expression, attenuation of BBB disruption, protection of the intestinal mucosal barrier, and modulation of the gut microbiota (Fig. 7).