Additionally, metabolic and inflammatory biomarkers such as 2-HG, chitinase-3-like protein 1, interleukin-2 (IL-2), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated in GBM progression and immune modulation.49 Despite extensive research, many circulating biochemical biomarkers lack tumor specificity, limiting their diagnostic utility. Here, TNF is linked to neoplasm.