CCL2 and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Additionally, the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, a key regulator of inflammation, is implicated in IPF; elevated CCL2 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissue are associated with increased NF-κB activity in macrophages, suggesting that NF-κB may drive CCL2 expression in IPF (Seki et al., 2009; Deshmane et al., 2009).