TGFB1 and hepatocellular carcinoma: In HCC, a predominant M2-like polarization contributes to an immunosuppressive milieu through multiple mechanisms, including the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-10, TGF-β), promotion of regulatory T cell recruitment, suppression of cytotoxic T lymphocyte function, and enhancement of angiogenesis and extracellular matrix remodeling.