Notably, while cTfh and Tph cells exhibited similar functional disparities between RA patients and HC, some functional molecules (such as ICOS, CD40L, CXCL13, IL-21, IFN-γ, perforin, and granzyme B) in RA cTfh and Tph exhibited elevated levels. The gene discussed is ICOS; the disease is rheumatoid arthritis.