INS and gestational diabetes: Compared to non-GDM counterparts, women with GDM exhibited significantly higher prevalence of NAFLD (p < 0.05) and demonstrated distinct metabolic profiles characterized by elevated fasting biomarkers (FPG, insulin, FFA), increased homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), reduced adiponectin levels, dyslipidemia (elevated TG, decreased HDL), and hepatic dysfunction (abnormal ALT and GGT activities) (all p < 0.05).