HMGB1 and infection: Likewise, HBV+DEN-treated liver showed elevated high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) expression, a well-known damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecule and TLR4 agonist46–48, in hepatocytes compared with Sham+DEN-treated liver at 4 months post-infection (Fig. 2h, i and Supplementary Fig. 3d).