TNF and colitis: iTcES treatment resulted in a significant reduction in TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-23, IL-17F, and IL-33 levels; all of these cytokines are known to exacerbate colitis by promoting intestinal epithelial cell death and disrupting the epithelial barrier (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2021; Dunleavy et al. 2023; Neurath 2024).