TNF and colitis: To elucidate the potential of TcES treatment to modulate the proinflammatory microenvironment within the colons of DSS-induced colitis mice, we quantified the production of various cytokines associated with proinflammatory responses, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-23, IL-17F, IL-21, and IL-33, as well as those involved in epithelial barrier protection, including IL-22, IL-31, and MCP-1, which are implicated in monocyte chemotaxis, and IL-4.