IGHE and allergic disease: Human studies have correlated HMOs presence in breast milk with allergy development, with mixed results.39 Some studies suggest certain HMO profiles may increase allergy risk40,41 while others indicate protective effects.42 Notably, infants fed 2’-FL-rich breast milk had a lower risk of developing IgE-associated eczema, especially those born by cesarean section and at high risk of allergies.43 This discrepancy may be due to the fact that maternal HMO composition varies widely.