Additionally, bacterial products like OMVs can dampen anti-tumor immune responses for instance, by upregulating the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint, and can act in concert with host pro-inflammatory cytokines to create a tumor-promoting immunosuppressive niche Under gut-liver axis regulation, Veillonella-derived LPS and secondary bile acids cooperatively drived biliary cell metabolic reprogramming through oxidative stress and FXR receptor signaling. Here, CD274 is linked to neoplasm.