TNF and HIV-1 infection: HIV-1 infection induces chronic neuroinflammation, driven by the release of neurotoxic viral proteins such as glycoprotein 120 (gp120), transactivator of transcription (Tat), viral protein R (Vpr), as well as the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-γ [66].