TD139 was found to be safe and well tolerated in a phase 1/2a clinical study (NCT02257177) of healthy volunteers and IPF patients and was observed to reduce Gal-3 expression in alveolar macrophages and plasma biomarkers associated with IPF progression, e.g., platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB, plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1, Gal-3, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL)-18 and YKL-40 [157]. Here, SERPINE1 is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.