TNF and brain ischemia: As shown in Figure 9, istradefylline significantly attenuated the elevation of microglia and astrocyte pro-inflammatory markers (inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)) as well as the neuronal NOS (nNOS) following cerebral ischemia induced by PVD surgery (Figure 9C–F).