DKK1 and chronic kidney disease: DKK1 has been independently associated with low bone turnover, and in stages 3 and 4 of CKD, circulating levels of DKK1 and sclerostin have appeared to be predictive of bone disease [200]; however, further research is required to assess its efficacy as a potential biomarker in the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of renal osteodystrophy [209].