CCL2 and breast cancer: Previous studies had demonstrated that PsA-D significantly reduced the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1, in LPS- and TNF-α-stimulated THP-1 monocytes and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, an effect linked to the stabilization of IκBα and inhibition of p65 phosphorylation [12].