TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: These results (31, 276) suggest that hucMSC-exosomes suppressed M1 macrophages, which produce IL-1β.IBD mice’s weight loss, shorter colon, compromised structural integrity of colonic tissues, elevated pyroptosis-related proteins (NLRP3, GSDMD-N, and caspase-1), and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18, and TNFα) were all reversed by BMSC-derived exosomes, according to another study (277).