TGFB1 and bacterial infectious disease: During IAV infection, cytokines related to wound repair [transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)], homeostasis interleukin-10 (IL-10), and allergy (IL-13) are also released.34, 35, 36 These cytokines enhance anti-influenza immune responses; however, their sustained presence in the lungs may prolong viral pneumonia37 and increase susceptibility to bacterial infections and asthma.38