Biomarker-driven diagnosis of SAE: several studies have suggested that biomarkers related to neuroinflammation (such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and neuronal injury (like S100B, GFAP, and neurofilament proteins) are more specifically elevated in patients with SAE than in those with severe sepsis without encephalopathy. Here, TNF is linked to Encephalopathy.