IFNG and cancer: Direct antitumor effects are primarily mediated by the secretion of cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-12, TRAIL, and calprotectin, which collectively inhibit tumor growth and metastasis through distinct mechanisms: IFN-γ activates antitumor immune responses to block tumor progression [72]; IL-12 enhances T-cell activation and enhances adaptive immunity against cancer cells [73]; TRAIL induces apoptosis in tumor cells via death receptor signaling [74]; and calprotectin directly restrains tumor cell proliferation and migratory capacity [75].