INS and diabetes mellitus: Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is primarily characterized by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β-cells, while type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) manifests as a triad of insulin resistance in target organs (skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue), chronic low-grade inflammation driven by pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6) secreted from macrophages and other immune cells, and progressive β-cell dysfunction due to glucolipotoxicity and endoplasmic reticulum stress (11).